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'This word was downloaded by: [113. 210. 1. 106] On: 22 action 2013, At: 07:28 Publisher: Routl jar against In conformitya Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered bit: Mortimer Ho spend, 37-41 Mortimer Street, capital of the United Kingdom W1T 3JH, UK daybook of sustainable touristry military write out details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www. tandfonline. com/loi/rsus20 A material of Approaches to sustainable touristry Jackie Clarke Version of record premiere make: 29 Mar 2010.To cite this article: Jackie Clarke (1997): A Framework of Approaches to sustainable tourism, Journal of sustainable tourism, 5:3, 224-233 To link to this article: http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/09669589708667287 PLEASE SCROLL everyplacematch FOR ARTICLE Full terms and con dotions of use: http://www. tandfonline. com/ rapsc everyion/ terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and mysterious stud y purposes. 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Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 work 2013 A Framework of Approaches to sustainable touristry Jackie ClarkeSchool of Business, Oxford Brooks University, Wheatley Campus, Wheatley, Oxford OX33 1HX pitch on an encompassing literature check over, this paper proposes a exemplar of preludees to sustainable touristry. The cloth is composed of four-spot dapples, chronologically sequenced gibe to the dominant sense of sustainable touristry as a possession or close. The couchs are those of icy enemys, continuum, cause and convergence. The framework offers insights into the increment of the sustainable touristry concept and enables identification of an author’s prelude to the concept. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 abut 2013Introduction The reasonableness of sustainable touristry has developed from the earlier ‘is it or isn’t it sustainable touristry’ debate, to the borrowing that research energy should be channelled into practical shipway of assisting all forms of touristry to move towards sustainability. The fundamental passing is the assumption of the former, that sustainable touristry is, in many a(prenominal) manner, already a possession of certain types of touristry or situation, against th e ackat onceledgement of the latter, that sustainable touristry is not an inherent characteristic of any existing form or situation, but a goal that all touristry must filtrate to achieve.The tremendous leger of output on the subject over the lowest decade (Brown, 1991) has contributed to the recognised ambiguity in spoken language (Beioley, 1995; De Kadt, 1990; Lanfant & Graburn, 1992; Murphy, 1994; Pearce, 1992, etc. ) and the surfeit of labels. For subject, eco touristry has no unequivocal usage. It has been verbalised as a symbiotic relationship mingled with touristry and nature conservation (Farrell & Runyan, 1991; Valentine, 1993), been equated with nature touristry (Boo, 1990), and constructed as a Venn diagram (Buckley, 1993; Wight, 1995). Occasionally, labels are unite to produce hybrids (see, for example, Dernoi, 1988; Wight,l995).As a concept, sustainable tourism is dormant evolving. A Framework of Approaches to sustainable tourism Based on a critic al literature review of some(prenominal) academic and labor contributions, the proposed framework comprises four positions of understanding of sustainable tourism. These four positions: · are slackly chronological, reflecting the dominant move up to sustainable tourism and crack insights into the concept’s suppuration; · admit a structure within which an author’s approach to the concept may be identified, affording insights for literature reviews.The framework is envisaged as complementary to other work (see, for example, Cazes, 1989; Pearce, 1992). As early literature comm so far fixed on weighing machine as the distinguishing feature, this is the unifying theme for the framework. As a 0966-9582/97/03 0224-10 $10. 00/0 JOURNAL OF sustainable TOURISM ©1997 J. Clarke Vol. 5, No. 3, 1997 224 A Framework of Approaches to sustainable touristry 225 criterion, crustal plate of measurement has shifted from an emotive or until now antagonistic role to neu tral ground. An overview of the framework shows the positions forming ii couple ups.The start pair regard sustainable tourism as a current possession of a particular exfoliation of tourism, whilst the second pair comprehend the phenomenon as a goal to be striven for. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 frame in 2013 The first position of polar opposites A term commensurate from Pearce (1992), the first, and probably the earliest of the four positions, was that of weed tourism and sustainable tourism conceived as polar opposites (see ikon 1). alternative tourism was the popular label for sustainable tourism, mutual exclusion being implicit in the term.As a hale, sustainable tourism was understood to be pulling away from mass tourism, which served as a point of repulsion (for commentary, see pantryman, 1991; Cazes, 1989; Krippendorf, 1987; Nash, 1992; Richter, 1987; Travis, 1988; Valentine, 1993). Thus, sustainable tourism and mass tourism were stereotyped as the ‘ proper’ and the ‘ mediocre’. The negative amicable and environmental impacts experient at endpoints were attributed solely to mass tourism, which was couched in emotive terms much(prenominal) s ‘hard’, ‘ghetto’, or ‘destructive’ tourism. Of course, mass tourism also think to get over, and the measure of the tourism involved was the principal be characteristic for the polar opposite approach. Wheeller (199la) summarised plate as the focal point: the pass awayler is preferred to the tourist, the case-by-case to the group, specialist operators rather than the greathearted firms, indigenous adjustment to multi-national hotel chains, low not bigger †essentially steady-going versus bad. Wheeller, l991a, author’s emphasis) Representing mass tourism, a music director of the Thomson break down Group lampooned the approach by sex act his situation as an ecotourism speaker at a Royal Geographical golf club gathering as being: rather like a cows baron addressing a congress of vegetarians. (Brackenbury, 1992: l0) At its well-nigh extreme, advocates of alternative tourism pressed for a entire replacement of mass tourism (cited in De Kadt, l990, 1992; Lanfant & Graburn, 1992) and of Cohen’s (1972) institutionalised tourist.Arguably, the position of polar opposites was streng whenceed by the presentation of mass versus sustainable characteristics in diametrically opposed tables (see, for example, Krippendorf, 1982; WTO, 1989). Such tables were developed into concrete notions of ‘bad’ versus ‘good’ (see Lane, 1989, 1990). ‘ upsurge tourism’ Conceptual roadblock ‘Sustainable tourism’ bet 1 range 1: polar opposites 226 Journal of Sustainable tourism Thus the earliest understanding of sustainable tourism was one of a dichotomised position.Believers in the polar opposite approach clearly regarded sustainable tourism as a possession of an existing type of tourism based on small master characteristics. self-command was claimed by tourism forms opposed to mass tourism. In short, small was synonymous with sustainable. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 blemish 2013 The second position of a continuum By the 1990s, the original position of polar opposites was in general rejected as unproductive, but the notion of a continuum between sustainable tourism and mass tourism presented a flexible adaptation of the earlier intellections (see get into 2).In recognition that sustainable tourism utilised the infrastructure, channelise and reservation systems of mass tourism (see De Kadt, 1990, 1992; Krippendorf, 1987; Wheeller, l991a), spawned an accompanying tourism industry structure (see Cohen, 1987, 1989; Krippendorf, 1987), and had the potential to develop into mass tourism if not properly managed (Butler, 1990, 1992; touristry strike, 1992), the simplicity of polar opposites was adjust ed to a continuum between the deuce extremes. Variations were appropriately placed along the spectrum (see, for example, Davidson, 1992).Although allowing some total of degree, the continuum understanding of sustainable tourism settle down regarded the phenomenon as a possession and used scale as the defining criterion. Polar opposites and continuum at that placefore formed a natural pair. However, the continuum approach to sustainable tourism was only ever loosely naturalized; understanding was pathetic in a new commission. ‘Mass tourism’ ‘Sustainable tourism’ Figure 2 ready 2: continuum Criticisms: too simple, too impractical Criticisms and queries start been voiced over these early approaches to sustainable tourism.The idea of polar opposites representing ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ was denounced as ‘grossly misleading’ (Butler, 1990). Most criticisms related to one or both of the following: · Too simple: the wr etched appreciation of tourism as a participating and complex phenomenon resulting in the inherent flaws in this understanding of sustainable tourism. · Too impractical: the question of scale and the inability of this narrow view of sustainable tourism to offer practical resolutenesss to the spherical problem of the burgeoning vividness of tourist arrivals. touristry is a complex and dynamic phenomenon (Heath & Wall, 1992; Przeclawski, 1993), yet sustainable tourism from the polar opposite and continuum positions imitation a homogeneity and simplicity in combat with reality (Cooper et al. , 1993). Faced with the dramatic growth in international tourism from the 25 one thousand thousand trips of 1950 (WTO, 1993) to the 531 million of 1994 (WTO, 1995a) and its continued predicted growth (WTO, l995b), the replacement of mass tourism with the sustainable tourism promoted by the two positions was illogical. universe small scale, sustainable tourism lacked the capability (B utler,A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable touristry 227 Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 1990; Cohen, 1987; Cooper et al. , 1993; Fennell & Smale, 1992; Pearce, 1992). Sustainable tourism could neither manage the number of arrivals nor replace the frugal benefits accrued (Butler, 1992; Cohen, 1987). For Wheeller (1990, l991a, l991b), the idea was a ‘micro solution’ struggling with a ‘macro problem’. Furthermore, this understanding was inward-looking, failing to recognise the importance of other industry sectors and the wider perspective of sustainable development (Hunter, 1995).Indeed, the second pair of positions better demonstrate the influence of the sustainable development landmarks that shaped the concept (for example, IUCN, 1980, 1991; The sphere direction on purlieu and ripening, 1987; the GLOBE ’90 and ’92 conferences; The get together Nations Conference on purlieu and victimisation with docke t 21). Other criticisms concerned issues such as elitism (Cazes, 1989; Richter, 1987), the problems of ensuring local ownership and control (Cater, 1992), and inbalances in power (Wheeller, 1990, l991a, l991b).Butler (1990) argued that the approach to sustainable tourism portrayed a passive picture of impacts. The revision of features related to time and do produced a less flattering scenario (Butler, 1990). For example, the more intensive contact between host and guest over a longer duration resulted in great damage to the fragile host culture than was pronto apparent in the ‘good’ versus ‘bad’ tables. The government issue of these tables was partly a solvent to an over-simplistic reading material of Krippendorf’s work (1982, 1987). Krippendorf (1987) was not opposed to mass tourism as long as it progressed towards ‘harmonious’ tourism.In fact, he urged that: only if we succeed in living with tourism as a mass phenomenon, ? , ca n we claim to have made a decisive flavor forward, (Krippendorf, 1982: 111, author’s emphasis) an assertion often unnoted by proponents of a polar opposite or continuum approach. The third position of movement Criticisms of the earlier understandings of sustainable tourism, coupled with a closer alignment to sustainable development, resulted in the demand to change mass tourism to more sustainable forms (see, for example, Bramwell, 1991; Butler, 1990, 1991; Cohen, 1987; De Kadt, 1990; GLOBE, 1990; EIU, 1992).If the main problem of groundbreaking tourism is that of its huge number, (Krippendorf, 1987: 42, author’s emphasis) then mass tourism was the most visible and apprised candidate for initial reform. The sustainable tourism as understood under movement differed from the earlier explanations of sustainable tourism on three key dimensions: · The issue of scale became more objective and less emotive. Mass tourism became the subject for improvement, rather than the derided villain. · Sustainable tourism became the goal for attainment, rather than the possession of an existing scale of tourism. Operationalising current knowledge to move towards the goal became the 228 Journal of Sustainable Tourism (’mass tourism’) over coatd scale tourism Sustainable Tourism aspiration Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 Figure 3 stake 3: movement practical center on of effort, rather than the ‘is it or isn’t it sustainable tourism’ debate of previous years. Figure 3 illustrates the understanding of sustainable tourism by movement advocates. As a label, large scale tourism is preferred to mass tourism, for it sheds the negative connotations.Viewed objectively, large scale tourism possesses strengths which could be used to benefit: · The environment is attacked by other industries, such as mining and manufacturing (EIU, 1992; McKercher, 1993), and tourism is dependent on environmental quality . The tourism industry must protect its assets; size is important, as large players exert pressure done lobbying power. · Large scale operators have the marketing and chat skills, plus contact opportunities in bulk, to actively bring up interest in sustainable tourism amongst the millions of consumers who bribe their products. Large size confers influence over suppliers and distributors, which could be used as a persuasive force for the introduction of sustainable policies along the supply chain. Of course, there are less altruistic reasons for large scale tourism to instigate movement towards the sustainable tourism goal. The imposition of environmental regulatory control by governments grappling with world problems of acid rain, ozone layer depletion and global warming require a minimum response of compliance.From the demand side, the rise of consumer interest in fountain issues (see ETB, 1992a, 1992b; super acid, 1990) provides the classic incentive of consumer needs. Th e interest expressed by consumers with financial institutions in environmental practices is a further motive. There are over xxx an ag em en im ts pa ct ys -e as nv ses tem iro nm s s †re ent men use t al Guid , re au eline cyc di s for le, red t susta uce inab le to urism Equity friendship/organisation focus ta lm s pac im cts al pa lob G im al sic y ph al/ gic olo Ec (’sustainable tourism’) Small scale tourism iro nm en En v -e nv iro nm e nt al A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 229 Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 environmental or ethical funds in the join Kingdom, representing approximately ? 750 million of investment; according to independent financial advisors Holden Meehan (1994), the idea of ‘profit with principle’ has move from the fringe to the mainstream.Investors are stakeholders requiring satisfaction. There are many examples of large scale tourism proactively moving towards the goal of sustainab le tourism (see Middleton & Hawkins, 1993, 1994; WTTERC, 1991â€1994). British Airways was one of the first tourism companies to publish an environmental report (British Airways, 1991), the global Hotels environs Initiative was a sector-specific project ( avant-garde Praag, 1992), whilst the ‘Green Globe’ programme was targeted across the tourism sectors (WTTERC, 1994).The valet de chambre motivity & Tourism Council, a coalition of school principal Executive Officers from international tourism companies, established the realism Travel & Tourism purlieu query means (WTTERC) to monitor, assess and communicate objectives, strategies and action programmes in respect of environmental management (WTTERC, 1992). Over one coke guidelines and codes of practice relating to tourism were identified (WTTERC, 1993); the environmental guidelines of the WTTERC itself provide a useful synopsis of the large scale understanding of sustainable tourism (WTTERC, 19 92).As Figure 3 demonstrates, the focus of this approach is on the physical/ ecological environment, with an emphasis on environmental management systems, incorporating techniques such as environmental audits of products, processes and issues, and environmental impact assessments. The fourth part position of convergence The framework culminates in a position of convergence (see Figure 4). This position represents the latest understanding of sustainable tourism as a goal that all tourism, regardless of scale, must strive to achieve (see, for example, Inskeep, 1991).Accepting that the concept of sustainable tourism is still evolving, the absence of a precise goal definition is less important than general movement in the correct direction. Appreciating the wider role of sustainable development, this final position recognises two interpretations of sustainable tourism. The large scale interpretation of sustainable tourism (as portrayed in position three) has a dominantly physical/ecol ogical perspective expressed as a business orientation. The small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism offers a social slant from a local or destination platform.It is akin to the understanding of sustainable tourism as alternative tourism under position one, shut out for the crucial recognition of the concept as a goal rather than a possession. Both interpretations: · focus on the implementation of their current knowledge of sustainable tourism to move towards the ultimate goal of sustainability; · look future progress towards the desired goal through the twin processes of further development of ideas inherent in their own interpretation and by adaptation of ideas found in the other.Together, this results in convergence towards the goal of sustainable tourism. For example, in this quest, large scale tourism is experimenting with techniques for induce shifts in tourist behaviour compatible with environmentallyfriendly act, an educational component instigated by the small scale enterprises. Thomsons now provide environmental guidelines for guests; TUI 230 Journal of Sustainable Tourism Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 Large scale tourism al nm vi ro En Figure 4 Position 4: convergence ave produced an environment ranking for products have in all their mainstream Euro-brochures. In turn, small scale enterprises are learning about the development of rough-and-ready environmental management systems, originally the territory of large scale organisations. In the UK, the environmental audit was promoted for small scale concerns by the West soil phaeton advance’s (1993) ‘Green Audit getup’; the project was then taken nationwide. In addition, by embracing sustainable development, both interpretations are unresolved to further ideas generated from outside the tourism sector.Like large scale tourism (see position three), the small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism has produced guidelines and codes of good practice (see, for example, ETB, 1991; Countryside Commission, 1991; Green, 1990), established destination-based projects (for example, the Devon-based Tarka Project) and offered and disseminated advice to interested parties (ETB, 1992a, 1992b, 1993). -e nv iro nm en ta l en t im g olo Ec m an ag em y ph al/ ic al sic en ts pa ct ys -e as nv s e s te m ir o nm sm s †re en use tal ent Guid , re au eline cyc s for le, r dit sust edu aina ce ble t ouri sm Equity Company/organisation focus ba Gl p l im s act p im Sustainable Tourism Goal ts ac Local area identity operator focus Equity Guid e Loc lines for al c sust ont aina Ed rol ble t uc ouri ati To sm on u of Au ris hos tc th t/to e n ha r uri tic act st ity eri s ti cs s act ts mp pac y al i rit ultur l im a c teg loc In o cial/ tion/ a S stin De Small scale tourism A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 231 The completed framework Taken as a whole, the framework both structures and partially explains some of the conflicts and debates that have occurred in sustainable tourism.Although due regard should be given to the limitations of a framework based purely on a literature review and purporting to be complementary in nature rather than encompassing, it does present insights to past development whilst taking a view as to the direction of future advances. 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